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  • With the administration of OM fatty acids it has

    2022-08-05

    With the administration of OM3 fatty acids, it has previously been shown that the activation of GPR120 is linked to the secretion and circulating levels of the adipokine adiponectin [123] promoting anti-inflammation (downregulation of NF-κB) and insulin sensitivity [124]. Interestingly, Nrf2 also decreases inflammation through the same pathway as GPR120 [29,125], but no previous study has shown the cross-talk between GPR-120 and Nrf2. In the Bob-Cat mice fed OM3 diet, we saw a significant increase in adiponectin mRNA expression within the adipose tissue. The combined results of high expression of GPR-120, Nrf2 (and its downstream signaling-activation of catalase and HO-1) provide evidences for a potential cross-talk between activation of GPR120 and Nrf2 synergistically decreasing inflammation within the adipose tissue as well as modulating whole body metabolism in the Bob-Cat mice. Although Nrf2 has been studied in depth in the Sitafloxacin Hydrate [126,127] and heart [31,122], because of its cytoprotective and anti-inflammatory benefits, we provide evidence for a similar role in adipose tissue. Furthermore, as observed from our current findings from our novel mice model fed OM3 diet, we believe there is an interaction between Nrf2, GPR120, and adiponectin which could potentially give rise to new therapies in obesity, if its induction could aid in mediating energy homeostasis through adipokine expression and secretion. Another metabolic regulator that is induced by both GPR120 and NRf2 is FGF21 [92,128]. In the current study, male mice overexpressing catalase trended to have increased FGF-21 mRNA expression compared to WT diet group controls, but the highest expression was in the HFD groups. Similar elevations in FGF-21 have been shown in studies investigating obese humans and rodent models [64,129,130]. Contrary to males, in female mice, the highest mRNA expression was within the OM3 fed groups, and mainly in Bob-Cat mice. Additionally, we observed plasma levels in female [Tg(CAT)±] and Bob-Cat mice fed HFD had opposite effects compared to males, yet, the FGF-21 levels were similarly increased when fed OM3 diet. However, there are conflicting reports on the regulation of FGF-21 by redox stress/Nrf2 activation [128,[131], [132], [133]] or whether increased FGF-21 is actually metabolically beneficial. It is of special importance to discuss the sexual dimorphism observed in the results of this study within the Bob-Cat mice groups. With gender differences in sex hormones (i.e. estrogen vs. testosterone), distribution of fat pads, and the role of epigenetics, it is essential to study both male and female genders to fully define energy–related metabolic signaling pathways [46,47]. Additionally, to our knowledge, no study has investigated the gender differences of supplementation of OM3 fatty acids in relation to redox homeostasis, making the findings of the sexual dimorphism in the ‘stress-less’ model truly novel. Fig. 12 provides a schematic overview of the sexual dimorphism observed within the Bob-Cat mice fed an OM3 enriched diet related to GPR120-Nrf2 cross talk. As seen in humans [90], we also observed higher serum TG levels in the Bob-Cat mice fed OM3 diet. Furthermore, males had significantly higher levels of serum TG when provided an OM3 diet compared to their WT littermates provided the same diet. Female Bob-Cat mice, in contrast, trended to have lower levels compared to the female WT control group. This is of importance since clinical trials show that in comparison to women, men have significantly lower levels of plasma total lipids/phospholipids of α-linoleic acid (ALA) and DHA in addition to less potent metabolic effects of the OM3 fatty acids EPA and DHA in decreasing risk for IR [134]. Plasma analysis of FGF-21 showed that Bob-Cat males have lower levels compared to WT controls and the opposite was seen within females. This is most intriguing due to recent studies showing that FGF-21 lowers TG levels within both human and rodent models [135]. Additionally, CLAMS analysis revealed that RER and CHO/fat oxidation in females trended to be higher compared to males regardless of the diet or genotype. In particular, we saw significant gender differences within the Bob-Cat mice. When fed OM3 diet, Bob-Cat males had much higher levels of RER/CHO oxidation and lower levels of fat oxidation compared to the WT mice group. However, in females, Bob-Cats fed OM3 diet had lower RER/CHO oxidation and higher levels of fat oxidation. Previous reports have shown that males and females differ in how they process polyunsaturated fatty acids [134] and that females retain higher levels of PUFA in circulation [136]. Additionally, the differences in oxidized substrates could also potentially play a role in modulating the circulating TG and FGF-21 levels providing reasoning for why we saw differences between the genders of the Bob-Cat mice.